The Neuron: Messengers of the Body
Say you get in a car crash and are permanently paralyzed. The doctor says that you have a fractured spine and that your nervous system is permanently damaged. What is the science behind this injury? Well, it is complicated but I am here to tell you about the cell responsible for this injury. (Figure 1) The neuron is a one-trick pony. It can transfer a signal from one neuron to another and make it get to your brain faster than a car. (Only 6 cars faster) (Branman) This neuron can transfer a signal up to 270 miles per hour(MPH). The neuron can send and receive chemical and electrical signals to and from the brain. For example, flick your hand right now and feel the pain. You feel it immediately but it is a fraction of a second off. That is the time it takes your neurons to transfer a signal to your brain and let it analyze it. Neurons are one of the most important cells in the body for the ability to feel and perceive. (Welsh)
The Nervous System
The Nervous System is the part of the body that controls everything in the body. Even eyes used to read this. That is a reaction that was caused by the nervous system. Every move one makes is thanks to the nervous system. The nervous system has three main parts. The brain, the spinal cord, and the parts that branch off of the spinal cord. The brain sends the message to the spinal cord, then sends the message to the branches. (Figure 2) This is what makes it so complex. The nervous system is connected to every system such as the muscle system or the skeletal system. The brain sends electrical signals that tell the muscle to move. The skeletal system protects the nervous system from injury (ex: the skull protecting the brain or the vertebrae protecting the spinal cord). (Website) The two crucial parts of the nervous system are the brain and the spinal cord.
The Brain
The brain is a complex organ that controls: thought, memory, emotion, touch, movement, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and every other process that regulates the body. (Figure 3)Together, the brain and spinal cord that extend from it make up the central nervous system. The brain’s frontal lobe is in charge of voluntary movement and expressive language. The brain stem regulates the body’s automatic functions. The brain sends electrical and chemical signals through the system making the body feel. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that coordinates movements for the rest of the body. One can easily imagine how important these are. Without the spinal cord, the body could not transfer those signals to move.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the part of the nervous system that sends things to and from the brain and the rest of the body. The nerve signals are the ones that move the body and make the body feel. These are the parts of the spinal cord: cervical, neck, thoracic, chest, lumbar -- lower back. (Figure 4) If someone damages their spinal cord they may never be able to move again. The standard spinal cord for one adult is 18 inches. Smoking can damage the spinal cord and cause back pain. Plus, it can’t repair itself to any damage. When damaged closer to the brain the more severe it is. So if you got in a car crash and damaged your cervical, you may be paralyzed and not be able to breathe without 24-7 care for the rest of your life. The brain could not send the message and this is the part that does the sending.
Tissues of The Brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the big part on top of the brain. It has four different lobes called the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. (Figure 5) The frontal lobe is responsible for expressive language, the capacity to plan, organize and respond to achieve a goal. (c=AU et al., Brain Map Frontal Lobes). They each control different parts of the body. Some people consider the limbic lobe a part of the cerebrum. It is in charge of the smell and taste. (“Cerebrum”) The parietal lobe is in charge of the five senses. (“Parietal Lobe”) The temporal lobe affects one’s emotions and language. Finally, there is the occipital lobe. It allows the brain to perceive color and objects. All of these are essential for life. (c=AU et al., Brain Map: Occipital Lobes)
Cerebellum
The cerebellum helps the cerebrum with movement and balance. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that remembers muscle memory. This part of the brain is focused on just movement. The body could not balance or walk without a cerebellum. (Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences)
Brainstem
The brainstem sends messages from the brain to the spinal cord. It also controls involuntary things like breathing or sustaining a heart rate. Without this, the body would be permanently paralyzed. (“Brainstem”) That paralysis could also be from a neuron’s organelles working correctly
Important Organelles of the Neuron
The neuron could not carry out all of its jobs without organelles doing their job. These are the seven important organelles that make the job of the neuron possible.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Mitochondria make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) out of food energy that is then exported to the rest of the cell. Mitochondria make more than 90% of the body’s energy in our cells. When the cell needs even more energy mitochondria can make themselves larger, then divide. In one cell there can be up to 600,000 mitochondria. The mitochondria are vital for our survival.
(“Mitochondria”); (Website); (Website); (Website); (The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
The main purpose of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is to transport proteins and molecules to the other organelles. There are two rough endoplasmic reticula per cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is like a big company selling products. That is involved with the production, folding, quality control, and despatch of proteins.
(Endoplasmic Reticulum; Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum’s main function is to synthesize and store lipids. It stores cholesterol, phospholipids, and calcium ions. Like the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum can be found in a plant cell. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also helps with the transformation of glycogen to glucose. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also detoxifies harmful metabolic byproducts.
(Website)
Lipofuscin Pigment Granule
(Jastrow)
The lipofuscin pigment granules are containers for lysosomal digestion. These lipids are unsaturated fatty acids that have suffered oxidation. This oxidation produces membrane damage. That is why lipofuscin is considered to be an aging pigment. This pigment is found in the liver, heart, muscle, retina, kidneys, and nerve cells.
Synaptic Terminal
The synaptic terminal connects two neurons. A neuron latches on to the synaptic terminal to be able to receive and pass on chemical or electrical signals to other neurons. Here is where neurotransmitters are stored and released. Presynaptic neurons send messages to postsynaptic neurons by secretion of chemical messengers (Neurotransmitters). This happens because at synapse the two neurons don’t touch. Without these, neurons would be useless.
Dendrite
Dendrite is the extremities of the cell body. Dendrites receive messages from other neurons. Dendrite contains proteins that receive, process, and transfer the signals to the cell body. The dendrites take up a large portion of the neuron. Dendrite has organelles that can alter protein density if needed. This helps to maintain a healthy and normal activity in neurons and supports the prevention of disorders like epilepsy. Therefore dendrites are very important for normal neural function.
(Website; Website)
Axon Terminal
The axon terminal releases the neurotransmitter to the synapse. The axon terminal is a branch off of the axon letting other neurons attach on. The axon terminal conducts electrical impulses called action potentials. The only thing between the two neurons is a synapse (Small gap). The neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles. Without the axon terminals, the neurons could not communicate.
(“Axon Terminal”)
These organelles are necessary for the neuron to transfer a message and do its job. When the neuron is not functioning properly it is better known.
Diseases, Disorders, Conditions, and Injuries
The following are some things that can go wrong when a neuron is not functioning correctly. Here are the four examples: Concussion, Paralysis, Tumors, and Alzheimer’s disease. A concussion is when the head is hit hard and the brain keeps moving; it hits the skull injuring it. Paralysis can happen if someone somehow injures their spinal cord and loses movement of a part of the body. The person may have full or partial paralysis. A tumor is when a part of the body’s tissue grows rapidly. This is similar to cancer but can be life-threatening or not. Alzheimer’s is a memory-eating disease that can ultimately prevent someone from doing simple everyday tasks. With this in mind, there are connections to other cells and animals that these can occur in too.
Connections
Skull
The skull works with the brain in a way that no other organ or structure can. (Figure 6) It protects the brain. Without the skull, the head would be formless. This is one of the most important things it can do. The brain is covered in meninges which is what touches the skull.
Muscle Cell
The neuron works a lot with the muscle cell. Without each other, people couldn’t move. The neurons send signals to the muscle cell triggering a reaction. This reaction can be the twitch of a finger or a swing of a tennis racket. The place where the motor neuron connects with the muscle cell is called the neuromuscular junction. When the spinal cord is damaged the neurons can not transmit signals therefore they can’t send signals to move. Without each other, they are practically useless. (Figure 7)
Connection to the Rat Brain
The rat brain is similar to humans at times. Despite the size difference and complexity difference the structure and function are very similar. Their neurons work together similarly to ours so rats could be as smart as us. (“Rats Can Be Smarter Than People”) Similar to humans, people can teach them to do things. They love to show off their tricks. They giggle and purr to show affection towards someone’s company. Like humans, they can be trained to go to the bathroom in a designated area. They can be very like humans at times. (“How Intelligent Are Rats?”); (Rat Brain Hippocampus Neurons)
Fun Facts
Here are some things about neurons that most people have never heard before.
The human brain has 100 billion neurons but the octopus brain only has 300-500 million neurons.
(Fun Facts About Neurons)
Scientists are working to sort of hack people’s nervous systems to understand them better. They are genetically altering people’s neurons to respond to light flashes.
(Cirino)
Depending on the neuron, it may have several dendrites or just one.
Each neuron in our brain has 1,000 to 10,000 connections to give a total of about one trillion connections in the brain.
The longest axon in the human body is 3ft but in a giraffe, it can be up to 15ft long.
(Lucas)
Rabbits have 494.2 million neurons.
Conclusion
Without the neuron, the body couldn't move. If the body could not move people could not eat or drink. Without food or water then—it would die. Sadly there is no cure for full-body paralysis. But you do know about the 270 MPH cell now. If you ever get in a car accident or already have. I hope that you think of this essay and are informed about the neuron plus the nervous system. Remember this whenever you get in a car.
Sources
“Axon Terminal.” Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online, 10 Nov. 2019, https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/axon-terminal.
“Brainstem.” Cleveland Clinic, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21598-brainstem. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Branman, Miles. “The 6 Fastest Cars in the World Right Now.” The Manual, 18 Nov. 2021, https://www.themanual.com/auto/fastest-cars-in-the-world/.
c=AU, et al. Brain Map Frontal Lobes. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/asp/bfrontal#:~:text=The%20frontal%2.... Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
---. Brain Map: Occipital Lobes. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/asp/boccipital#:~:text=The%20occipit.... Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences. https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s3/chapter05.html. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“Cerebrum.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/cerebrum. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Cirino, Erica. “11 Fun Facts About the Nervous System.” Healthline, 3 May 2017, https://www.healthline.com/health/fun-facts-about-the-nervous-system.
Endoplasmic Reticulum. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Fun Facts About Neurons. https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/brains/neuron/funfacts. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“How Intelligent Are Rats?” Burgess Pet Care, 3 Dec. 2020, https://www.burgesspetcare.com/blog/rats/how-intelligent-are-rats/.
Jastrow, Med Holger. Telolysosomes Dr. Jastrow’s Electron Microscopic Atlas. http://www.drjastrow.de/WAI/EM/EMtLysoE.html. Accessed 11 Feb. 2022.
Lucas. “Neuron Facts: 40 Facts on Structure, Types, Function, Synapse and More!” Facts Legend, 7 Nov. 2017, https://factslegend.org/40-neuron-facts-structure-types-functions-synap….
“Mitochondria.” Genome.gov, https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondria. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“Parietal Lobe.” Physiopedia, https://www.physio-pedia.com/Parietal_Lobe. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Rat Brain Hippocampus Neurons. https://bioscience.lonza.com/lonza_bs/US/en/Primary-and-Stem-Cells/p/000.... Accessed 2 Feb. 2022.
“Rats Can Be Smarter Than People.” Harvard Business Review, 1 Jan. 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/01/rats-can-be-smarter-than-people.
Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Endoplasmic-Reticulum-rough . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Facts about Mitochondria. https://www.chop.edu/mitochondria-facts . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Website. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous....
---. https://www.technologynetworks.com/tn/lists/5-roles-mitochondria-play-in....
---. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320875.
---. https://www.ducksters.com/science/biology/cell_mitochondria.php.
---. https://www.britannica.com/science/smooth-endoplasmic-reticulum.
---. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular....
Welsh, Tim. “It Feels Instantaneous, but How Long Does It Take to Think a Thought?” The Conversation, 2015, http://theconversation.com/it-feels-instantaneous-but-how-long-does-it-r....
Say you get in a car crash and are permanently paralyzed. The doctor says that you have a fractured spine and that your nervous system is permanently damaged. What is the science behind this injury? Well, it is complicated but I am here to tell you about the cell responsible for this injury. (Figure 1) The neuron is a one-trick pony. It can transfer a signal from one neuron to another and make it get to your brain faster than a car. (Only 6 cars faster) (Branman) This neuron can transfer a signal up to 270 miles per hour(MPH). The neuron can send and receive chemical and electrical signals to and from the brain. For example, flick your hand right now and feel the pain. You feel it immediately but it is a fraction of a second off. That is the time it takes your neurons to transfer a signal to your brain and let it analyze it. Neurons are one of the most important cells in the body for the ability to feel and perceive. (Welsh)
The Nervous System
The Nervous System is the part of the body that controls everything in the body. Even eyes used to read this. That is a reaction that was caused by the nervous system. Every move one makes is thanks to the nervous system. The nervous system has three main parts. The brain, the spinal cord, and the parts that branch off of the spinal cord. The brain sends the message to the spinal cord, then sends the message to the branches. (Figure 2) This is what makes it so complex. The nervous system is connected to every system such as the muscle system or the skeletal system. The brain sends electrical signals that tell the muscle to move. The skeletal system protects the nervous system from injury (ex: the skull protecting the brain or the vertebrae protecting the spinal cord). (Website) The two crucial parts of the nervous system are the brain and the spinal cord.
The Brain
The brain is a complex organ that controls: thought, memory, emotion, touch, movement, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and every other process that regulates the body. (Figure 3)Together, the brain and spinal cord that extend from it make up the central nervous system. The brain’s frontal lobe is in charge of voluntary movement and expressive language. The brain stem regulates the body’s automatic functions. The brain sends electrical and chemical signals through the system making the body feel. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that coordinates movements for the rest of the body. One can easily imagine how important these are. Without the spinal cord, the body could not transfer those signals to move.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the part of the nervous system that sends things to and from the brain and the rest of the body. The nerve signals are the ones that move the body and make the body feel. These are the parts of the spinal cord: cervical, neck, thoracic, chest, lumbar -- lower back. (Figure 4) If someone damages their spinal cord they may never be able to move again. The standard spinal cord for one adult is 18 inches. Smoking can damage the spinal cord and cause back pain. Plus, it can’t repair itself to any damage. When damaged closer to the brain the more severe it is. So if you got in a car crash and damaged your cervical, you may be paralyzed and not be able to breathe without 24-7 care for the rest of your life. The brain could not send the message and this is the part that does the sending.
Tissues of The Brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the big part on top of the brain. It has four different lobes called the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. (Figure 5) The frontal lobe is responsible for expressive language, the capacity to plan, organize and respond to achieve a goal. (c=AU et al., Brain Map Frontal Lobes). They each control different parts of the body. Some people consider the limbic lobe a part of the cerebrum. It is in charge of the smell and taste. (“Cerebrum”) The parietal lobe is in charge of the five senses. (“Parietal Lobe”) The temporal lobe affects one’s emotions and language. Finally, there is the occipital lobe. It allows the brain to perceive color and objects. All of these are essential for life. (c=AU et al., Brain Map: Occipital Lobes)
Cerebellum
The cerebellum helps the cerebrum with movement and balance. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that remembers muscle memory. This part of the brain is focused on just movement. The body could not balance or walk without a cerebellum. (Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences)
Brainstem
The brainstem sends messages from the brain to the spinal cord. It also controls involuntary things like breathing or sustaining a heart rate. Without this, the body would be permanently paralyzed. (“Brainstem”) That paralysis could also be from a neuron’s organelles working correctly
Important Organelles of the Neuron
The neuron could not carry out all of its jobs without organelles doing their job. These are the seven important organelles that make the job of the neuron possible.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Mitochondria make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) out of food energy that is then exported to the rest of the cell. Mitochondria make more than 90% of the body’s energy in our cells. When the cell needs even more energy mitochondria can make themselves larger, then divide. In one cell there can be up to 600,000 mitochondria. The mitochondria are vital for our survival.
(“Mitochondria”); (Website); (Website); (Website); (The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
The main purpose of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is to transport proteins and molecules to the other organelles. There are two rough endoplasmic reticula per cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is like a big company selling products. That is involved with the production, folding, quality control, and despatch of proteins.
(Endoplasmic Reticulum; Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum’s main function is to synthesize and store lipids. It stores cholesterol, phospholipids, and calcium ions. Like the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum can be found in a plant cell. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also helps with the transformation of glycogen to glucose. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also detoxifies harmful metabolic byproducts.
(Website)
Lipofuscin Pigment Granule
(Jastrow)
The lipofuscin pigment granules are containers for lysosomal digestion. These lipids are unsaturated fatty acids that have suffered oxidation. This oxidation produces membrane damage. That is why lipofuscin is considered to be an aging pigment. This pigment is found in the liver, heart, muscle, retina, kidneys, and nerve cells.
Synaptic Terminal
The synaptic terminal connects two neurons. A neuron latches on to the synaptic terminal to be able to receive and pass on chemical or electrical signals to other neurons. Here is where neurotransmitters are stored and released. Presynaptic neurons send messages to postsynaptic neurons by secretion of chemical messengers (Neurotransmitters). This happens because at synapse the two neurons don’t touch. Without these, neurons would be useless.
Dendrite
Dendrite is the extremities of the cell body. Dendrites receive messages from other neurons. Dendrite contains proteins that receive, process, and transfer the signals to the cell body. The dendrites take up a large portion of the neuron. Dendrite has organelles that can alter protein density if needed. This helps to maintain a healthy and normal activity in neurons and supports the prevention of disorders like epilepsy. Therefore dendrites are very important for normal neural function.
(Website; Website)
Axon Terminal
The axon terminal releases the neurotransmitter to the synapse. The axon terminal is a branch off of the axon letting other neurons attach on. The axon terminal conducts electrical impulses called action potentials. The only thing between the two neurons is a synapse (Small gap). The neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles. Without the axon terminals, the neurons could not communicate.
(“Axon Terminal”)
These organelles are necessary for the neuron to transfer a message and do its job. When the neuron is not functioning properly it is better known.
Diseases, Disorders, Conditions, and Injuries
The following are some things that can go wrong when a neuron is not functioning correctly. Here are the four examples: Concussion, Paralysis, Tumors, and Alzheimer’s disease. A concussion is when the head is hit hard and the brain keeps moving; it hits the skull injuring it. Paralysis can happen if someone somehow injures their spinal cord and loses movement of a part of the body. The person may have full or partial paralysis. A tumor is when a part of the body’s tissue grows rapidly. This is similar to cancer but can be life-threatening or not. Alzheimer’s is a memory-eating disease that can ultimately prevent someone from doing simple everyday tasks. With this in mind, there are connections to other cells and animals that these can occur in too.
Connections
Skull
The skull works with the brain in a way that no other organ or structure can. (Figure 6) It protects the brain. Without the skull, the head would be formless. This is one of the most important things it can do. The brain is covered in meninges which is what touches the skull.
Muscle Cell
The neuron works a lot with the muscle cell. Without each other, people couldn’t move. The neurons send signals to the muscle cell triggering a reaction. This reaction can be the twitch of a finger or a swing of a tennis racket. The place where the motor neuron connects with the muscle cell is called the neuromuscular junction. When the spinal cord is damaged the neurons can not transmit signals therefore they can’t send signals to move. Without each other, they are practically useless. (Figure 7)
Connection to the Rat Brain
The rat brain is similar to humans at times. Despite the size difference and complexity difference the structure and function are very similar. Their neurons work together similarly to ours so rats could be as smart as us. (“Rats Can Be Smarter Than People”) Similar to humans, people can teach them to do things. They love to show off their tricks. They giggle and purr to show affection towards someone’s company. Like humans, they can be trained to go to the bathroom in a designated area. They can be very like humans at times. (“How Intelligent Are Rats?”); (Rat Brain Hippocampus Neurons)
Fun Facts
Here are some things about neurons that most people have never heard before.
The human brain has 100 billion neurons but the octopus brain only has 300-500 million neurons.
(Fun Facts About Neurons)
Scientists are working to sort of hack people’s nervous systems to understand them better. They are genetically altering people’s neurons to respond to light flashes.
(Cirino)
Depending on the neuron, it may have several dendrites or just one.
Each neuron in our brain has 1,000 to 10,000 connections to give a total of about one trillion connections in the brain.
The longest axon in the human body is 3ft but in a giraffe, it can be up to 15ft long.
(Lucas)
Rabbits have 494.2 million neurons.
Conclusion
Without the neuron, the body couldn't move. If the body could not move people could not eat or drink. Without food or water then—it would die. Sadly there is no cure for full-body paralysis. But you do know about the 270 MPH cell now. If you ever get in a car accident or already have. I hope that you think of this essay and are informed about the neuron plus the nervous system. Remember this whenever you get in a car.
Sources
“Axon Terminal.” Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online, 10 Nov. 2019, https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/axon-terminal.
“Brainstem.” Cleveland Clinic, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21598-brainstem. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Branman, Miles. “The 6 Fastest Cars in the World Right Now.” The Manual, 18 Nov. 2021, https://www.themanual.com/auto/fastest-cars-in-the-world/.
c=AU, et al. Brain Map Frontal Lobes. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/asp/bfrontal#:~:text=The%20frontal%2.... Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
---. Brain Map: Occipital Lobes. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/asp/boccipital#:~:text=The%20occipit.... Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences. https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s3/chapter05.html. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“Cerebrum.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/cerebrum. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Cirino, Erica. “11 Fun Facts About the Nervous System.” Healthline, 3 May 2017, https://www.healthline.com/health/fun-facts-about-the-nervous-system.
Endoplasmic Reticulum. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Fun Facts About Neurons. https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/brains/neuron/funfacts. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“How Intelligent Are Rats?” Burgess Pet Care, 3 Dec. 2020, https://www.burgesspetcare.com/blog/rats/how-intelligent-are-rats/.
Jastrow, Med Holger. Telolysosomes Dr. Jastrow’s Electron Microscopic Atlas. http://www.drjastrow.de/WAI/EM/EMtLysoE.html. Accessed 11 Feb. 2022.
Lucas. “Neuron Facts: 40 Facts on Structure, Types, Function, Synapse and More!” Facts Legend, 7 Nov. 2017, https://factslegend.org/40-neuron-facts-structure-types-functions-synap….
“Mitochondria.” Genome.gov, https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondria. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
“Parietal Lobe.” Physiopedia, https://www.physio-pedia.com/Parietal_Lobe. Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Rat Brain Hippocampus Neurons. https://bioscience.lonza.com/lonza_bs/US/en/Primary-and-Stem-Cells/p/000.... Accessed 2 Feb. 2022.
“Rats Can Be Smarter Than People.” Harvard Business Review, 1 Jan. 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/01/rats-can-be-smarter-than-people.
Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Endoplasmic-Reticulum-rough . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Facts about Mitochondria. https://www.chop.edu/mitochondria-facts . Accessed 1 Feb. 2022.
Website. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous....
---. https://www.technologynetworks.com/tn/lists/5-roles-mitochondria-play-in....
---. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320875.
---. https://www.ducksters.com/science/biology/cell_mitochondria.php.
---. https://www.britannica.com/science/smooth-endoplasmic-reticulum.
---. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular....
Welsh, Tim. “It Feels Instantaneous, but How Long Does It Take to Think a Thought?” The Conversation, 2015, http://theconversation.com/it-feels-instantaneous-but-how-long-does-it-r....
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